ratio of word probabilities predicted from brain for chisel and truck

chisel	truck
top 10 words in brain distribution (in article): light produce type design form allow time common size contain	top 10 words in brain distribution (in article): steel body time type modern term allow size common produce
top 10 words in brain distribution (not in article): drink lamp wine beer cell water bottle key valve pipe	top 10 words in brain distribution (not in article): church bishop iron blade cell head form century cut handle
times more probable under chisel 30 20 10 6 4 2.5 1.25 1 1.25 2.5 4 6 10 20 30 times more probable under truck (words not in the model)
A chisel'" is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on its end, for carving or cutting a hard material such as wood, stone, or metal. The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or wood with a sharp edge in it. In use, the chisel is forced into the material to cut the material. The driving force may be manually applied or applied using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a hydraulic ram or falling weight ('trip hammer') drives the chisel into the material to be cut. A "gouge", one type of chisel, is used, particularly in woodworking, woodturning and sculpture, to carve small pieces from the material. Gouges are most often used in creating concave surfaces. A gouge typically has a 'U'-shaped cross-section. Types of Chisels. Chisels have a wide variety of uses. Many types of chisels have been devised, each specially suited to its intended use. Different types of chisels may be constructed quite differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as shape and hardness of blade. They may have wooden handles attached or may be made entirely of one piece of metal. Woodworking chisels. Woodworking chisels range from quite small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used remove big sections of wood, in 'roughing out' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the detail. One of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. According to their function there are many names given to woodworking chisels, such as: Japanese woodworking chisels. The better quality Japanese wood chisels are made from laminated steel. There are different types of metals used in each chisel. The better ones are laminated by hand, over a charcoal fire. The combination of the metals makes a chisel that takes a very sharp edge, and is hard enough to maintain the edge for a long time. This technique produces a tools that have a harder edge, usually a hardness rating of Rockwell 64, compared to their western counterparts of around 62 on the Rockwell scale. There are two basic metals used in these chisels, white steel and blue steel. The names come from the color of the paper the steels are wrapped in. White and blue steel come in vary grades, that vary in carbon content. Both have low levels of impurities. White steel is a simple carbon steel. Blue steel contains alloying elements, and sacrifices some sharpness for edge retention, toughness, and corrosion resistance, although it is not stainless. Many makers are descendants of the samurai sword makers, once highly respected members of their country, until these swords were outlawed. The chisel makers often turned their attention to chisel and plane makers. Expensive sets have a decorative wood grain look to them which is actually the thin layers of steel being hammered together. The neck of the chisel can be twisted to add to the decorative look of the tool. The handles are often made from an exotic hardwood, such as ebony. The sets usually come in a wooden box, signed by the maker. Japanese chisels have hollows in the back side, the wider ones having as many as four hollows. These are intended to help in the flattening of the back of the chisels, which is the first step in sharpening a chisel. Once the back side is perfectly flat, and polished to the required degree, the front and side edges need to be addressed. A general rule is any chisel with a hoop, or metal ring at the end of the handle, is it's designed to be struck with mallet. If it does not have a hoop, it is a paring tool, designed not to be struck with another tool. Lathe tools. A lathe tool is a woodworking chisel designed to cut wood as it is spun on a lathe. These tools have longer handles for more leverage, needed to counteract the tendency of the tool to react to the downward force of the spinning wood being cut or carved. In addition, the angle and method of sharpening is different, a secondary bevel would not be ground on the tool. Woodworking chisels range from quite small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used remove big sections of wood, in 'roughing out' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the detail. One of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. Metalworking chisels. Chisels used in metal work can be divided into two main categories, "hot" chisels, and "cold" chisels. A hot chisel is used to cut metal that has been heated in a forge to soften the metal. Cold chisel. A cold chisel'" is a tool made of tempered steel used for cutting 'cold' metals, meaning that they are not used in conjunction with heating torches, forges, etc. Cold chisels are used to remove waste metal when a very smooth finish is not required or when the work cannot be done easily with other tools, such as a hacksaw, file, bench shears or power tools. The name cold chisel comes from its use by blacksmiths to cut metal while it was cold as compared to other tools they used to cut hot metal. This tool is also commonly referred to by the misnomer 'coal chisel'. Because cold chisels are used to form metal, they have a less-acute angle to the sharp portion of the blade than a woodworking chisel. This gives the cutting edge greater strength at the expense of sharpness. Cold chisels come in a variety of sizes, from fine engraving tools that are tapped with very light hammers, to massive tools that are driven with sledgehammers. Cold chisels are forged to shape and hardened and tempered (to a brown colour) at the cutting edge. The head of the chisel is chamfered to slow down the formation of the mushroom shape caused by hammering and is left soft to withstand hammer blows. The are four common types of cold chisel. These are the flat chisel, the most widely known type, which is used to cut bars and rods to reduce surfaces and to cut sheet metal which is too thick or difficult to cut with snips. The cross cut chisel is used for cutting grooves and slots. The blade narrows behind the cutting edge to provide clearance. The round nose chisel is used for cutting semi-circular grooves for oil ways in bearings. The diamond point chisel is used for cleaning out corners or difficult places and pulling over centre punch marks wrongly placed for drilling. Although the vast majority of cold chisels are made of steel, a few are manufactured from beryllium copper, for use in special situations where non-sparking tools are required. Hardy chisel. A toothed stone chisel, used by stone sculptors and stonemasons A "'hardy chisel'" is a type of hot chisel with a square shank, which is held in place with the cutting edge facing upwards by placing it in an anvil's Hardy hole. The hot workpiece cut is then placed over the hardy, and struck with a hammer. The hammer drives the chisel into the hot metal, allowing it to be snapped off with a pair of tongs. Stone chisels. Stone chisels are used to carve or cut stone, bricks or concrete slabs. To cut, as opposed to carve, a brick bolster is used; this has a wide, flat blade that is tapped along the cut line to produce a groove, then hit hard in the centre to crack the stone. Sculptors use a "spoon chisel", which is bent, with the bezel (cutting edge) on both sides. To increase the force, stone chisels are often hit with club hammers, a heavier type of hammer. Masonry chisels. Masonry chisels are typically heavy, with a relatively dull head that wedges and breaks, rather than cuts. Normally used as a demolition tool, they may be mounted on a hammer drill, jack hammer, or hammered manually, usually with a heavy hammer of three pounds or more. Plugging chisel. A Plugging chisel has a tapered edge for cleaning out hardened mortar. The chisel is held with one hand and struck with a hammer. The direction of the taper in the blade determines if the chisel cuts deep or runs shallow along the joint.	A truck'" is a type of motor vehicle commonly used for carrying goods and materials. Some light trucks are relatively small, similar in size to a passenger automobile. Commercial transportation or fire trucks can be quite large and can also serve as a platform for specialized equipment. Etymology. The word "truck" possibly derives from the Greek "trochos" (τροχός =wheel). In North America, certain kinds of big wheels were called "trucks". When the gasoline-engine driven trucks came into fashion, these were called "motor trucks." International variance. In the United States and Canada "truck" is usually reserved for commercial vehicles larger than normal cars, and for pickups and other vehicles having an open load bed. In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, "lorry" is used as well as "truck", but only used for the medium and heavy types (see below); "i.e." a van, a pickup or an off-road four-wheel drive vehicle such as a Jeep would never be regarded as a lorry in these countries, unlike in the United States (it should be noted, however, that the term lorry is not used in the United States). The same applies to the initials "HGV" (for Heavy Goods Vehicle) which is basically synonymous with "lorry". The word "truck" is also accepted in these countries, and can apply to large vans as well as to lorries ("i.e." its scope is slightly wider). In the UK vernacular, "wagon" is still commonly used to describe various larger vehicles. Though the US term station wagon is occasionally used in the UK, it can cause confusion (despite retaining the US definition), so the societal term estate car remains widely popular. "Lorry" is also used in Hong Kong. In South Africa, the word "kombi" is used, based on its Afrikaans equivalent. The word "lorry" is also used in Cambodia, although here it can refer to a train. In Australia and New Zealand, a pickup truck (a relatively small, usually car- or van-derived vehicle, with an open back body) is called a ute'" (short for "utility") and the word "truck" or "lorry" is reserved for larger vehicles. Other languages have loanwords based on these terms, such as the Malay language and the Spanish language in northern Mexico. A commonly understood term for truck across many European countries is "'camion'". Camion is also used in Quebec to identify trucks in French. Additionally, from the German language the initials "PKW" ("'P'"ersonen"'K'"raft"'W'"agen or passenger carrying vehicle) for a car van or small truck) and "LKW" ("'L'"ast"'K'"raft"'W'"agen or cargo load freight carrying vehicle) for larger trucks are understood. In U.S. English the word "truck" is used in the names of particular types of truck, such as a "fire truck" or "tanker truck". Note that in British English these would be a "fire engine" and "tanker" respectively. Driving. In the United States a commercial driver's license is required to drive any type of vehicle weighing 26,001 lbs (11,800 kg) or more. In the United Kingdom there are complex rules; as an overview, to drive a vehicle weighing more than 7,500 kg for commercial purposes requires a specialist license (the type varies depending on the use of the vehicle and number of seats). For licenses first acquired after 1997, that weight was reduced to 3,500 kg, not including trailers. In the Australia a truck driving license is required for any motor vehicle with a GVM exceeding 4500 kg. The motor vehicles classes are further expanded as "'LR/MR'" (Light Medium rigid up to 8000 kg GVM + trailer to maximum GCM 8000 kg), "'HR'" (Heavy Rigid +trailer up to GCM 9000 kg), "'HC'" (Heavy Combination, a typical prime mover +semi trailer combination) and the "'MC'" (Multi Combination e.g B Doubles Road trains). There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a licence class HR, HC or MC in a vehicle fitted with an automatic or synchromesh transmission, driver’s licence will restrict to vehicles of that class fitted with a synchromesh or automatic transmission. To have the condition removed, a person needs to pass a practical driving test in a vehicle with non synchromesh transmission (constant mesh or crash box). Engine. The oldest truck was built in 1896 by Gottlieb Daimler. Small trucks such as SUVs or pickups, and even light medium-duty trucks in North America and Russia will use gasoline engines. Most heavier trucks use four stroke turbo intercooler diesel engines. Huge off-highway trucks use locomotive-type engines such as a V12 Detroit Diesel two stroke engine. North American manufactured highway trucks almost always use an engine built by a third party, such as CAT, Cummins, or Detroit Diesel. The only exceptions to this are Volvo and its subsidiary Mack Trucks, which are available with their own engines. Freightliner Trucks, Sterling Trucks and Western Star, subsidiaries of Daimler AG, are available with Mercedes-Benz and Detroit Diesel engines. Trucks and buses built by Navistar International usually also contain International engines. The Swedish manufacturer Scania claims they stay away from the U.S. market because of this third party tradition. In the European Union all new truck engines must comply with Euro 5 regulations. Drivetrain. Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all cars, having either an automatic transmission or a manual transmission with synchronisers. Bigger trucks often use manual transmissions without synchronisers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as "crash boxes", require double-clutching for each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries), or a technique known colloquially as "floating," a method of changing gears which doesn't use the clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double clutching, especially with non power assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear. Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and transmission revolutions to synchronize, so that a smooth shift can be made, "e.g.," when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released and the clutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is moved to the next highest gear. Finally, the clutch pedal is released and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain required engine speed. Although this is a relatively fast movement, perhaps a second or so while transmission is in neutral, it allows the engine speed to drop and synchronize engine and transmission revolutions relative to the road speed. Downshifting is performed in a similar fashion, except the engine speed is now required to increase (while transmission is in neutral) just the right amount in order to achieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision gear change. "Skip changing" is also widely used; in principle operation is the same as double-clutching, but it requires neutral be held slightly longer than a single gear change. Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18 speeds. Automatic and semi-automatic transmissions for heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances both in transmission and engine power. In Europe 8, 10, 12 and 16 gears are common on larger trucks with manual transmission, while automatic or semiautomatic transmissions would have anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are of the "range and split" (double H shift pattern) type, where range change and so-called half gears or splits are air operated and always preselected before the main gear selection. More new trucks in Europe are being sold with automatic or semi-automatic transmissions. This may be due the fuel consumption can be lowered and truck durability improved. The primary reason perhaps is the fact that such transmissions give a driver more time to concentrate on the road and traffic conditions. Frame. A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C-shaped rails, or beams, held together by crossmembers. These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses, or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop. Though they may be welded, crossmembers are most often attached to frame rails by bolts or rivets. Crossmembers may be boxed or stamped into a c-shape, but are most commonly boxed on modern vehicles, particularly heavy trucks. The frame is almost always made of steel, but can be made (whole or in part) of aluminum for a lighter weight. A tow bar may be found attached at one or both ends, but heavy trucks almost always make use of a fifth wheel hitch. Environmental effects. Trucks contribute to air, noise, and water pollution similarly to automobiles. Trucks may emit lower air pollution emissions than cars per pound of vehicle mass, although the absolute level per vehicle mile traveled is higher and diesel particulate matter is especially problematic for health. With respect to noise pollution trucks emit considerably higher sound levels at all speeds compared to typical car; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp whine of a turbocharger on acceleration or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking is allowed. Concerns have been raised about the effect of trucking on the environment, particularly as part of the debate on global warming. In the period from 1990 to 2003, carbon dioxide emissions from transportation sources increased by 20%, despite improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency. In 2005, transportation accounted for 27% of U.S. greenhouse gas emission, increasing faster than any other sector. Between 1985 and 2004, in the U.S., energy consumption in freight transportation grew nearly 53%, while the number of ton-miles carried increased only 43%. "Modal shifts account for a nearly a 23% increase in energy consumption over this period. Much of this shift is due to a greater fraction of freight ton-miles being carried via truck and air, as compared to water, rail, and pipelines." According to a 1995 U.S. Government estimate, the energy cost of carrying a ton of freight a distance of one kilometer averages 337 kJ for water, 221 kJ for rail, 2 000 kJ for trucks and nearly 13 000 kJ for air transport. Many environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to encourage the switch from road to rail, especially in Europe. The European Parliament is moving to ensure that charges on heavy-goods vehicles should be based in part on the air and noise pollution they produce and the congestion they cause, according to legislation approved by the Transport Committee The Eurovignette scheme has been proposed whereby new charges would be potentially levied against things such as noise and air pollution and also weight related damages from the lorries themselves Commercial insurance. Primary Liability Insurance coverage protects the truck from damage or injuries to other people as a result of a truck accident. This truck insurance coverage is mandated by U.S. state and federal agencies and proof of coverage is required to be sent to them. Insurance coverage limits range from $35,000 to $1,000,000. Pricing is dependent on region, driving records, and history of the trucking operation. Motor Truck Cargo insurance protects the transporter for his responsibility in the event of damaged or lost freight. The policy is purchased with a maximum load limit per vehicle. Cargo insurance coverage limits can range from $10,000 to $100,000 or more. Pricing for this insurance is mainly dependent on the type of cargo being hauled. Truck shows. In the UK, three truck shows are popular -Shropshire Truck Show in Oswestry Showground during May, The UK Truck Show held in June at Santa Pod Raceway and FIA European Drag Racing Championships from the home of European Drag-Racing. The UK Truck Show features drag-racing with 6-ton trucks from the British Truck Racing Association, plus other diesel-powered entertainment. Truck Shows provide operators with an opportunity to win awards for their trucks.